Arabic Language History

The language of Allah and Muhammad is spoken by over 200 million people in 28 countries from Africa to the Middle East. Muslims in the world revere Arabic as the language of the Holy Qur'an. The Holy Qur'an has preserved Arabic in its purest form in the eyes of Muslims, describing itself as a "clear Arabic book". Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) is the official language throughout the Arab world, and, in its written form, it is relatively consistent across national boundaries.

MSA is used in official documents, in educational settings, and for communication between Arabs of different nationalities. However, the spoken forms of Arabic vary widely, and each Arab country has its own dialect. Dialects are spoken in most informal settings, such as at home, with friends, or while shopping. Of all spoken dialects, Egyptian Arabic is the most widely understood, due primarily to Egypt's role as the major producer of movies and TV programmes in the Arab world.

Being one of the quirkiest in the world, the actual script reads from right to left with an alphabet containing 28 consonants. There are various types of Arabic script, some more intricate than others. The best known are "Kufic" and "Thuluth". Arabic script has been used for decorative purposes all over the Muslim world in mosques, houses and other buildings. This is possible as the writing flows in a beautiful stylised fashion.

Today, words of Arabic origin can be found in some European languages such as Portuguese and Spanish, due to periods of Arab reign in those countries. English words of Arabic origin include "zero", "algebra", "alcohol", "mosque", "tariff", "alcove", "magazine", "elixir", "sultan" and "cotton".

Arabic Language History

ROOTS OF THE ARABIC LANGUAGE 

Arabic is descended from a language known in the literature as Proto-Semitic. This relationship places Arabic firmly in the Afro-Asiatic group of world languages. Going further into the relationship between Arabic and the other Semitic languages, Modern Arabic is considered to be part of the Arabo-Canaanite sub-branch of the central group of the Western Semitic languages.

MODERN ARABIC DISGLOSSIA

Modern Arabic is an uncommon language because it is characterised by what is called diglossia. This means that modern Arabic is really almost two languages: Modern Standard Arabic and colloquial Arabic. Modern Standard Arabic is used in reading, writing, and high register speech. It is descended from the Classical language of the Qur'an and, in the view of almost all Arabs, is the "pure" Arabic. However, Modern Standard Arabic is a learned language. It is no one's mother tongue. In fact, all Arabs grow up learning the second or colloquial language.

Arab colloquial dialects are generally only spoken languages. Arabs use the colloquial language in all their daily interactions, but, when they encounter a language situation calling for greater formality, Modern Standard Arabic is the medium of choice.

Standard Arabic is more or less the same throughout the Arab world, while there are wide differences between the various colloquial dialects. In fact, some of the differences are so large that many dialects are mutually unintelligible.

Main Arab-speaking countries 

EGYPT

Population: 76,117,421 (July 2004 est.)
Languages: Arabic
GDP: $295.2 billion (2003 est.)
GDP per capita: $4,000 (2003 est.) 

Exports: crude oil and petroleum products, cotton, textiles, metal products, chemicals
Exports partners: US 13.6%, Italy 12.4%, UK 8.1%, France 4.8%, Germany 4.7%, India 4.2% (2003 est.)
Imports: machinery and equipment, foodstuffs, chemicals, wood products, fuels
Imports partners: US 13.4%, Germany 7.3%, Italy 6.9%, France 6.5%, China 4.7%, Saudi Arabia 4.2% (2003 est.)

The regularity and richness of the annual Nile River flood, coupled with semi-isolation provided by deserts to the east and west, allowed for the development of one of the world's great civilizations. A unified kingdom arose circa 3200 B.C. and a series of dynasties ruled in Egypt for the next three millennia. The last native dynasty fell to the Persians in 341 B.C., who in turn were replaced by the Greeks, Romans, and Byzantines.

It was the Arabs who introduced Islam and the Arabic language in the 7th century, ruling the country for the next six centuries. A local military caste, the Mamluks, took control about 1250 and continued to govern after the conquest of Egypt by the Ottoman Turks in 1517.

Following the completion of the Suez Canal in 1869, Egypt became an important world transportation hub. Partially independent from the UK in 1922, Egypt acquired full sovereignty following World War II. The completion of the Aswan High Dam in 1971 and the resultant Lake Nasser have altered the time-honoured place of the Nile River in the agriculture and ecology of Egypt. The government has struggled to ready the economy for the new millennium through economic reform and massive investment in communications and physical infrastructures.

JORDAN

Population: 5,611,202 (July 2004 est.)
Languages: Arabic
GDP: $23.64 billion (2003 est.)
GDP per capita: $4,300 (2003 est.)

Exports: clothing, phosphates, fertilizers, potash, vegetables, manufactures, pharmaceuticals
Exports partners: US 19%, Iraq 18.6%, India 8.6%, Saudi Arabia 5% (2003 est.)
Imports: crude oil, textile fabrics, machinery, transport equipment, manufactured goods
Imports partners: Iraq 12.5%, Germany 7.8%, US 7.7%, China 7.2%, Italy 5.2%, France 4.7%, UK 4.5% (2003 est.)

For most of its history since independence from British administration in 1946, Jordan was ruled by King Hussein (1953-99). A pragmatic ruler, he successfully navigated competing pressures from the major powers (US, USSR, and UK), various Arab states, Israel, and a large internal Palestinian population, despite several wars and coup attempts.

In 1989 he reinstated parliamentary elections and gradually political liberalization; in 1994 he signed a formal peace treaty with Israel. King Abdallah II - the eldest son of King Hussein and Princess Muna - assumed the throne following his father's death in February 1999.

Since then, he has consolidated his power and undertaken an aggressive economic reform programme. Jordan acceded to the World Trade Organization in 2000, and began to participate in the European Free Trade Association in 2001. After a two-year delay, parliamentary and municipal elections took place in the summer of 2003. The prime minister and government appointed in October 2003 declared their commitment to accelerated economic and political reforms and the new cabinet includes an unprecedented three women as ministers.

KUWAIT

Population: 2,257,549 (July 2004 est.)
Languages: Arabic
GDP: $41.46 billion (2003 est.)
GDP per capita: $19,000 (2003 est.) 

Exports: oil and refined products, fertilizers
Exports partners: Japan 22%, South Korea 13.1%, US 12%, Singapore 10.2%, Taiwan 7.5%, Pakistan 4.7% (2003 est.)
Imports: food, construction materials, vehicles and parts, clothing
Imports partners: US 15%, Japan 10.4%, Germany 9.7%, China 6.7%, UK 6.2%, Saudi Arabia 5.6%, Italy 5.1%, France 4.3% (2003 est.)

Kuwait is a small, rich, relatively open economy with proved crude oil reserves of about 98 billion barrels - 10% of world reserves. Petroleum accounts for nearly half of GDP, 95% of export revenues, and 80% of government income. Kuwait's climate limits agricultural development. Consequently, with the exception of fish, it depends almost wholly on food imports. About 75% of drinkable water must be distilled or imported. Kuwait continues its discussions with foreign oil companies to develop fields in the northern part of the country.

MOROCCO

Population: 32,209,101 (July 2004 est.)
Languages: Arabic (official), Berber dialects, French often the language of business, government, and diplomacy
GDP: $128.3 billion (2003 est.)
GDP per capita: purchasing power parity - $4,000 (2003 est.)

Exports: clothing, fish, inorganic chemicals, transistors, crude minerals, fertilizers (including phosphates), petroleum products, fruits, vegetables 
Exports partners: France 26.3%, Spain 16.6%, UK 7.1%, Germany 5.2%, Italy 4.9% (2003 est.)
Imports: crude petroleum, textile fabric, telecommunications equipment, wheat, gas and electricity, transistors, plastics 
Imports partners: France 21.1%, Spain 13.6%, Italy 6.7%, Germany 6.7%, China 4.6%, Saudi Arabia 4.2% (2003 est.)

The Kingdom of Morocco is the most westerly of the North African countries known as the Maghreb. Strategically situated with both Atlantic and Mediterranean coastlines, but with a rugged mountainous interior, the country remained independent for centuries while developing a rich culture blended from Arab, Berber, European and African influences.

Morocco was a French protectorate from 1912 to 1956, when Sultan Muhammad became king. He was succeeded in 1961 by his son, Hassan II, who ruled for 38 years. He played a prominent role in the search for peace in the Middle East, given the large number of Israelis of Moroccan origin. After his death in 1999, he was succeeded by his son, who became King Muhammad VI and was seen as a moderniser who would press on towards establishing a constitutional monarchy.

OMAN

Population: 2,903,165 (July 2004 est.)
Languages: Arabic (official), English, Baluchi, Urdu, Indian dialects
GDP: $36.7 billion (2003 est.)
GDP per capita: $13,100 (2003 est.) 

Exports: petroleum, fish, metals, textiles
Exports partners: Japan 22.4%, South Korea 20.5%, China 17.7%, Thailand 12.6%, US 6.7%, Taiwan 5.6% (2003 est.)
Imports: machinery and transport equipment, manufactured goods, food, livestock, lubricants
Imports partners: UAE 27.4%, Japan 16.8%, UK 7.5%, US 5.6%, Germany 4.5% (2003 est.)

The oldest independent state in the Arab world, the Sultanate of Oman is one of the more traditional countries in the Gulf region and was, until recently, one of the most isolated. Located in the south-eastern corner of the Arabian peninsula, the country has been viewed as strategically important given its position at the mouth of the Gulf.

At one time it had its own empire stretching down the east African coast and vied with Portugal and Britain for influence in the Gulf and Indian Ocean. Since a coup removed his father in 1970, Sultan Qaboos Bin Said has opened up the country to the rest of the world after a period of isolation. As with other Gulf nations, oil is the mainstream of the economy, providing around 40% of GDP. Agriculture and fishing provide important sources of income for much of the population.

QATAR

Population: 840,290 (July 2004 est.)
Languages: Arabic
GDP: $17.54 billion (2003 est.)
GDP per capita: $21,500 (2003 est.) 

Exports: petroleum products, fertilizers, steel
Exports partners: Japan 41%, South Korea 16.6%, Singapore 8.6% (2003 est.)
Imports: machinery and transport equipment, food, chemicals
Imports partners: France 18.7%, UK 10.6%, Germany 9.8%, Japan 9.8%, US 8.4%, Italy 5.9% (2003 est.)

The State of Qatar has developed from being one of the poorest Gulf states, with its income based primarily on pearl fishing, to become one of the richest, thanks to the exploitation of large oil and gas fields since the 1940s. Today its people have one of the highest per capita incomes in the world.

Dominated by the Al Thani family for almost 150 years, the mainly barren country was a British protectorate until 1971, when it declared its independence after following suit with Bahrain and refusing to join the United Arab Emirates. Oil revenues have allowed the creation of an all-embracing welfare state, with many services being free or heavily subsidised.

SAUDI ARABIA

Population: 25,795,938 (July 2004 est.)
Languages: Arabic
GDP: $287.8 billion (2003 est.)
GDP per capita: $11,800 (2003 est.) 

Exports: petroleum and petroleum products 90%
Exports partners: US 20.9%, Japan 15.6%, South Korea 9.8%, China 5.6%, Singapore 4.2% (2003 est.)
Imports: machinery and equipment, foodstuffs, chemicals, motor vehicles, textiles
Imports partners: US 9.5%, Japan 7.7%, Germany 7.4%, UK 6.2%, China 4.4%, France 4.2% (2003 est.)

One of the most devout and insular countries in the Middle East, Saudi Arabia has emerged from being an underdeveloped desert kingdom to become one of the wealthiest nations in the region thanks to vast oil resources.

Named after the ruling Al Saud family, which first came to power in the 18th century, the country includes the Hijaz region - the birthplace of the Prophet Muhammad and the cradle of Islam. This fact, combined with the Al Sauds' adoption of a strict interpretation of Sunni Islam known as Wahhabism, has led it to develop a strongly religious self-identity.

Saudi Arabia was established in 1932 by King Abd-al-Aziz - known as the Lion of Najd - who took over Hijaz from the Hashemite family and united the country under his family's rule. Since his death in 1953, he has been succeeded by various sons.

SYRIA

Population: 18,016,874 (July 2004 est.)
Languages: Arabic (official), Kurdish, Armenian, Aramaic, Circassian widely understood
GDP: $58.01 billion (2003 est.)
GDP per capita: $3,300 (2003 est.)

Exports: crude oil, petroleum products, fruits and vegetables, cotton fibre, clothing, meat and livestock, wheat
Exports partners: Germany 19.9%, Italy 11.9%, Turkey 8.4%, UAE 7.2%, Lebanon 5.9%, France 5.1%, Croatia 4.6% (2003 est.)
Imports: machinery and transport equipment, electric power machinery, food and livestock, metal and metal products, chemicals and chemical products, plastics, yarn, paper
Imports partners: Germany 7%, Italy 7%, China 6.2%, France 5.8%, South Korea 4.7%, Turkey 4.5% (2003 est.)

Once the centre of the Islamic Empire, Syria covers an area that has seen invasions and occupations over the ages by almost all the great powers that have established in the region, from Romans and Mongols to Crusaders and Turks.

A country of fertile plains, mountain ranges and deserts, Syria is home to many diverse ethnic and religious groups, including Kurds, Armenians, Assyrians, Alawite Shias and Druze, as well as the Arab Sunnis who make up the majority of the Muslim population.

TUNISIA

Population: 9,974,722 (July 2004 est.)
Languages: Arabic (official and one of the languages of commerce), French (commerce)
GDP: $68.23 billion (2003 est.)
GDP per capita: $6,900 (2003 est.) 

Exports: textiles, mechanical goods, phosphates and chemicals, agricultural products, hydrocarbons
Exports partners: France 31.5%, Italy 20.5%, Germany 10.7%, Libya 4.9%, Belgium 4.5%, Spain 4.2% (2003 est.)
Imports: textiles, machinery and equipment, hydrocarbons, chemicals, food
Imports partners: France 26.6%, Italy 20.3%, Germany 8.8%, Spain 5.2% (2003 est.)

Home of the ancient city of Carthage, Tunisia has for a long time been an important player in the Mediterranean, placed as it is in the centre of North Africa, close to vital shipping routes. In their time, the Romans, Arabs, Ottoman Turks and French realised its strategic significance, making it a hub for control over the region.

French colonial rule came to an end in 1956, and Tunisia was led for three decades by Habib Bourguiba, who insisted on advancing secular ideas, with emancipation for women, the abolition of polygamy and compulsory free education. Married to a Frenchwoman, Bourguiba insisted on an anti-Islamic fundamentalist line. In 1987 he was dismissed on grounds of senility and Zine El Abidine Ben Ali came into office. He continued with a hard line against Islamic extremists, but inherited an economically stable country.

UNITED ARAB EMIRATES

Population: 2,523,915 (July 2004 est.)
Languages: Arabic (official), Persian, English, Hindi, Urdu
GDP: $57.7 billion (2003 est.)
GDP per capita: $23,200 (2003 est.) 

Exports: crude oil 45%, natural gas, reexports, dried fish, dates
Exports partners: Japan 26.8%, South Korea 9.5%, Iran 3.8% (2003 est.)
Imports: machinery and transport equipment, chemicals, food
Imports partners: China 10.9%, Japan 7.9%, Germany 7.8%, US 7.6%, France 7.5%, UK 6.5%, Italy 4.8%, India 4.4% (2003 est.)

The Trucial States of the Persian Gulf coast granted the UK control of their defence and foreign affairs in 19th century treaties. In 1971, six of these states - Abu Zaby, 'Ajman, Al Fujayrah, Ash Shariqah, Dubayy, and Umm al Qaywayn - merged to form the United Arab Emirates (UAE). They were joined in 1972 by Ra's al Khaymah.

The UAE's per capita GDP is not far below those of leading West European nations. Its generosity with oil revenues and its moderate foreign policy stance have allowed the UAE to play a vital role in the affairs of the region.

Before the discovery of oil in the 1950s, the UAE's economy was dependent on fishing and a declining pearling industry. But since 1962, when Abu Dhabi became the first of the emirates to begin exporting oil, the country's society and economy have been transformed.

The ruler of Abu Dhabi, Sheikh Zayed, president of the UAE since its inception, was quick to seize on the potential of the oil industry, ensuring the development of all the emirates by reinvesting oil revenues back into healthcare, education and national infrastructure. The oil industry has also led to a large influx of foreign workers who now make up approximately three quarters of the population. The UAE is one of the most liberal countries in the Gulf, with other cultures and beliefs generally tolerated.

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